The Two Particle Model of the Atom and the Universe is a new theory of physics, a complete rethinking of how the universe works. It simply and straightforwardly explains everything from creation to the structure of the atom, gravity, stars and galaxies without invoking the problematic hypothetical and mathematical versions of reality at the core of the current popular models. The new physics in this book is presented in clear, easily understandable language which builds in simple, logical steps from the natural creation of the first particles to the formation of all stars and galaxies. Along the way, it explains how gravity, the electrostatic force and magnetism all arise from one single fundamental force and how, together, they influence the workings of everything in the universe from the small, at the sub-atomic scale to the large, at the cosmic scale. This is a book about the universe . It begins with the essential nature of an infinite universe, describes how it naturally created all the particles, matter, stars and galaxies within it and ends with explanations for its overall stability as well as its locally often spectacular instabilities.

The Standard Model of physics is a construct of large numbers of real, hypothetical and virtual particles and fields interacting in highly complex ways within what can only be described as a mathematical version of reality. Over the years, as improved observational tools have exposed inconsistencies and shortcomings, the theory has been progressively adapted and expanded by adding more and more hypothetical particles, forces and mathematical complexity into the mix until, today, it pretty much fits anything you could throw at it. Now, when something new comes along which cannot be explained, the accepted fallback solution is simply to add in yet more hypotheticals and complexity until the theory once more tallies with the new information. The result is a super-complex, inherently mathematical, catch-all behemoth of a theory which, because it offers its own in-built explanations for most currently-observed atomic behaviours, it is considered to be an outstanding success. Except that it doesn’t explain everything. It cannot explain gravity. Or the electron. Or the lack of antimatter it says should exist. It cannot explain the behaviour of stars and galaxies without recourse to more hypotheticals such as dark matter and dark energy. It is incongruent with the other great consensus theory of the universe, General Relativity and so clearly one, or both, must be flawed. Just as the Standard Model doesn’t work at the large scale, General Relativity doesn’t even come close to working at the atomic scale. One theory describes the universe in terms of hypothetical fields and the other in terms of four-dimensional constructs and, because these completely different, unrelated versions of physics can each exist only in a mathematical version of reality, both are continually being confounded by real-world observations. Common-sense alone tells us that the universe is real, not mathematical. Physics is physics. It doesn’t change because something is bigger or smaller or because there’s more of it around. It clearly makes no sense to have to use one version of physics to explain matter at the atomic scale and then a completely different version when the same matter exists in larger quantities. And then yet another version, based on probability and non-reality, to account for all the bits that these two, even when combined, still cannot explain. However, that is exactly where we are at the moment.

The Two Particle Model, unlike Quantum Field Theory with its universal aether of hypothetical fundamental fields, is a particle model based on real, measurable particles. We have known for over 100 years that charge is quantised. A quantum of charge is real and precisely measured with a known charge of 1.6x10 -19 Coulombs. The new physics in this book simply acknowledges positive and negative quanta to be the sole fundamental particles which fill the whole infinite universe and from which everything in the universe is made. The elementary particles comprising protons and atoms are simply natural orbital arrangements of these quanta. This means that all atomic and subatomic particles, the structure of the atom, the creation of matter, the formation and behaviour of stars and galaxies all become understandable and explainable in terms of just two fundamental particles and the fundamental force of attraction between them. There’s no need to invoke a hypothetical singularity, cosmic inflation, dark matter, dark energy, gravitons or curved spacetime - everything becomes easily explained without them and understandable using the basic laws of physics rather than the bespoke laws of complex mathematics. Because particles such as quarks, gluons, bosons, virtual particles and their proposed anti-particles are all hypothetical constructs within a mathematical version of reality, the huge weight of convoluted mathematical explanation surrounding them simply disappears. With just one fundamental force, not four as required by the Standard Model, and just two real and measurable fundamental quanta, the workings of the atom and the universe immediately become clear and obvious, consistent and easily understandable at all levels from the subatomic to stars and galaxies. The Two Particle Model can be represented schematically as follows:

6” x 9” (153 x 228mm)

177 pages

Black & white

ISBN 978-1-0683160-0-5

Language: English

Paperback

Delivery 5-10 days

The two fundamental quanta naturally combine to produce the four elementary particles which together form all atoms, matter, stars and galaxies throughout the universe. As shown in the above schematic, positrons have a central positive interactive quantum and electrons a central negative interactive quantum.

Preface 1 Introduction 2 The Two Particle Model (Schematic) 3 Particles, Fields & Relativity Why Quantum Field Theory in its current form has produced flawed outcomes and cannot be reconciled with General Relativity. 4 Occam's Razor 5 Quantum Space & The Fundamental Force The impossibility of pre-creation empty space and the necessary existence of quantum space; a description of its nature; its constituent fundamental quanta; their configurations and behaviours; the fundamental force as the sole force in nature. 6 The Quantum The intrinsic properties of fundamental quanta including charge, size and spin; quantum pairs; zero-point energy. 7 Mass A definition of mass and explanations for why some particles are massive and others have zero mass. 8 The Speed of Light Why the speed of light is constant in a given medium; resonant mass; the orbital structure and speed of neutrinos and photons; neutrino and photon orientation; photon energy loss with distance travelled. 9 The Four Elementary Particles The structure of the four elementary particles, the neutrino, photon, electron and positron. 10 The Neutrino The structure and formation of the neutrino and how neutrinos become energised and increase in orbital size. The properties of neutrinos, explained here, provide the underlying mechanism for the electrostatic force, gravity and for the creation of matter. 11 The n-neutrino and p-neutrino Terminology for the different orbital polarity states of neutrinos; n-neutrinos and p-neutrinos. 12 The Electrostatic Force An explanation for the electrostatic force; attraction and repulsion; why it is not a fundamental force; range. 13 Static Electricity How dipoles in a material interact with an electric field and how this produces static charge. 14 Gravity An explanation for gravity; why it is such a weak force; why it is not a fundamental force; the Casimir Effect; gravity and light; gravity and temperature. 15 The Photon The structure of photons; how photons are energised; size change with energy; photon orientation; n-photons and p-photons; spin; interactions with electrons and other particles; photon redshift. 16 Electrons & Positrons A description of the elementary particles the electron and the positron; their structure, size, mass, speed and stability; surrounding neutrino clouds. 17 Electron Orbits An explanation for the discrete orbital energy levels of atomic electrons; the photo-electric effect; how and why a gas discharge tube produces light with a characteristic energy; atomic absorption and emission spectra. 18 Magnetism The nature of magnetism; behaviour of electrons in a magnetic field; repulsion and attraction between electrical currents; induced current and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. 19 Pair Production & Annihilation Electron-positron pair production and electron- positron annihilation. 20 Matter Creation How matter is created from photon and neutrino interactions in a high density electron environment and an explanation for the birth of stars. 21 Proton Assembly, Size & Stability How protons are assembled and the formation of atoms; proton size; maximum and minimum size for a proton; the size of protons within atoms; the formation and decay of muons and antimuons. 22 The Neutron An explanation for the neutron and the force that makes it bind to a proton. Why a free neutron is unstable and how it decays into a proton and an electron. 23 Creation The formation of the first elementary particles leading to the creation of matter in the universe; why our universe is made from matter and not antimatter; antimatter universes. 24 Matter in the Universe Star formation; supernovae; nebulae; galaxies; galactic jets; galactic rotation; quasar ghosts; variable stars; GRBs; black holes; neutron stars; dark matter and dark energy; matter and antimatter; matter evaporation; the cosmic microwave background; stability and future of the universe; power generation. 25 Relativity Quantum space as a single inertial frame of reference; the constancy of the speed of light; relativistic time dilation; relative motion; red/blueshift; gravitational lensing. 26 Optics and Quantum Mechanics A brief overview of basic optics: reflection, refraction, diffraction and polarisation; the Bell Test; Quantum Mechanics; quantum computing. 27 Orbital Structures 28 Summary 29 Conclusion

Four Elementary Particles

The Two Particle Model of the Atom and the Universe is a new theory of physics, a complete rethinking of how the universe works. It simply and straightforwardly explains everything from creation to the structure of the atom, gravity, stars and galaxies without invoking the problematic hypothetical and mathematical versions of reality at the core of the current popular models. The new physics in this book is presented in clear, easily understandable language which builds in simple, logical steps from the natural creation of the first particles to the formation of all stars and galaxies. Along the way, it explains how gravity, the electrostatic force and magnetism all arise from one single fundamental force and how, together, they influence the workings of everything in the universe from the small, at the sub-atomic scale to the large, at the cosmic scale. This is a book about the universe . It begins with the essential nature of an infinite universe, describes how it naturally created all the particles, matter, stars and galaxies within it and ends with explanations for its overall stability as well as its locally often spectacular instabilities.

The Standard Model of physics is a construct of large numbers of real, hypothetical and virtual particles and fields interacting in highly complex ways within what can only be described as a mathematical version of reality. Over the years, as improved observational tools have exposed inconsistencies and shortcomings, the theory has been progressively adapted and expanded by adding more and more hypothetical particles, forces and mathematical complexity into the mix until, today, it pretty much fits anything you could throw at it. Now, when something new comes along which cannot be explained, the accepted fallback solution is simply to add in yet more hypotheticals and complexity until the theory once more tallies with the new information. The result is a super-complex, inherently mathematical, catch-all behemoth of a theory which, because it offers its own in-built explanations for most currently-observed atomic behaviours, it is considered to be an outstanding success. Except that it doesn’t explain everything. It cannot explain gravity. Or the electron. Or the lack of antimatter it says should exist. It cannot explain the behaviour of stars and galaxies without recourse to more hypotheticals such as dark matter and dark energy. It is incongruent with the other great consensus theory of the universe, General Relativity and so clearly one, or both, must be flawed. Just as the Standard Model doesn’t work at the large scale, General Relativity doesn’t even come close to working at the atomic scale. One theory describes the universe in terms of hypothetical fields and the other in terms of four-dimensional constructs and, because these completely different, unrelated versions of physics can each exist only in a mathematical version of reality, both are continually being confounded by real-world observations. Common-sense alone tells us that the universe is real, not mathematical. Physics is physics. It doesn’t change because something is bigger or smaller or because there’s more of it around. It clearly makes no sense to have to use one version of physics to explain matter at the atomic scale and then a completely different version when the same matter exists in larger quantities. And then yet another version, based on probability and non-reality, to account for all the bits that these two, even when combined, still cannot explain. However, that is exactly where we are at the moment.

The Two Particle Model, unlike Quantum Field Theory with its universal aether of hypothetical fundamental fields, is a particle model based on real, measurable particles. We have known for over 100 years that charge is quantised. A quantum of charge is real and precisely measured with a known charge of 1.6x10 -19 Coulombs. The new physics in this book simply acknowledges positive and negative quanta to be the sole fundamental particles which fill the whole infinite universe and from which everything in the universe is made. The elementary particles comprising protons and atoms are simply natural orbital arrangements of these quanta. This means that all atomic and subatomic particles, the structure of the atom, the creation of matter, the formation and behaviour of stars and galaxies all become understandable and explainable in terms of just two fundamental particles and the fundamental force of attraction between them. There’s no need to invoke a hypothetical singularity, cosmic inflation, dark matter, dark energy, gravitons or curved spacetime - everything becomes easily explained without them and understandable using the basic laws of physics rather than the bespoke laws of complex mathematics. Because particles such as quarks, gluons, bosons, virtual particles and their proposed anti-particles are all hypothetical constructs within a mathematical version of reality, the huge weight of convoluted mathematical explanation surrounding them simply disappears. With just one fundamental force, not four as required by the Standard Model, and just two real and measurable fundamental quanta, the workings of the atom and the universe immediately become clear and obvious, consistent and easily understandable at all levels from the subatomic to stars and galaxies. The Two Particle Model can be represented schematically as follows:

The two fundamental quanta naturally combine to produce the four elementary particles which together form all atoms, matter, stars and galaxies throughout the universe. As shown in the above schematic, positrons have a central positive interactive quantum and electrons a central negative interactive quantum.

Delivery 5-10 days

6” x 9” (153 x 228mm)

177 pages

Black & white

ISBN 978-1-0683160-0-5

Language: English

Paperback

Four Elementary Particles

Preface 1 Introduction 2 The Two Particle Model (Schematic) 3 Particles, Fields & Relativity Why Quantum Field Theory in its current form has produced flawed outcomes and cannot be reconciled with General Relativity. 4 Occam's Razor 5 Quantum Space & The Fundamental Force The impossibility of pre-creation empty space and the necessary existence of quantum space; a description of its nature; its constituent fundamental quanta; their configurations and behaviours; the fundamental force as the sole force in nature. 6 The Quantum The intrinsic properties of fundamental quanta including charge, size and spin; quantum pairs; zero-point energy. 7 Mass A definition of mass and explanations for why some particles are massive and others have zero mass. 8 The Speed of Light Why the speed of light is constant in a given medium; resonant mass; the orbital structure and speed of neutrinos and photons; neutrino and photon orientation; photon energy loss with distance travelled. 9 The Four Elementary Particles The structure of the four elementary particles, the neutrino, photon, electron and positron. 10 The Neutrino The structure and formation of the neutrino and how neutrinos become energised and increase in orbital size. The properties of neutrinos, explained here, provide the underlying mechanism for the electrostatic force, gravity and for the creation of matter. 11 The n-neutrino and p-neutrino Terminology for the different orbital polarity states of neutrinos; n-neutrinos and p-neutrinos. 12 The Electrostatic Force An explanation for the electrostatic force; attraction and repulsion; why it is not a fundamental force; range. 13 Static Electricity How dipoles in a material interact with an electric field and how this produces static charge. 14 Gravity An explanation for gravity; why it is such a weak force; why it is not a fundamental force; the Casimir Effect; gravity and light; gravity and temperature. 15 The Photon The structure of photons; how photons are energised; size change with energy; photon orientation; n-photons and p-photons; spin; interactions with electrons and other particles; photon redshift. 16 Electrons & Positrons A description of the elementary particles the electron and the positron; their structure, size, mass, speed and stability; surrounding neutrino clouds. 17 Electron Orbits An explanation for the discrete orbital energy levels of atomic electrons; the photo-electric effect; how and why a gas discharge tube produces light with a characteristic energy; atomic absorption and emission spectra. 18 Magnetism The nature of magnetism; behaviour of electrons in a magnetic field; repulsion and attraction between electrical currents; induced current and Fleming’s Right Hand Rule. 19 Pair Production & Annihilation Electron-positron pair production and electron-positron annihilation. 20 Matter Creation How matter is created from photon and neutrino interactions in a high density electron environment and an explanation for the birth of stars. 21 Proton Assembly, Size & Stability How protons are assembled and the formation of atoms; proton size; maximum and minimum size for a proton; the size of protons within atoms; the formation and decay of muons and antimuons. 22 The Neutron An explanation for the neutron and the force that makes it bind to a proton. Why a free neutron is unstable and how it decays into a proton and an electron. 23 Creation The formation of the first elementary particles leading to the creation of matter in the universe; why our universe is made from matter and not antimatter; antimatter universes. 24 Matter in the Universe Star formation; supernovae; nebulae; galaxies; galactic jets; galactic rotation; quasar ghosts; variable stars; GRBs; black holes; neutron stars; dark matter and dark energy; matter and antimatter; matter evaporation; the cosmic microwave background; stability and future of the universe; power generation. 25 Relativity Quantum space as a single inertial frame of reference; the constancy of the speed of light; relativistic time dilation; relative motion; red/blueshift; gravitational lensing. 26 Optics and Quantum Mechanics A brief overview of basic optics: reflection, refraction, diffraction and polarisation; the Bell Test; Quantum Mechanics; quantum computing. 27 Orbital Structures 28 Summary 29 Conclusion